Here we are continuing from part 2.

The reader might be remaking by now that we’re cluttering up the namespace with these functions, and it’s a bit inelegant to make all the function names start with dl-list-.  Also, some of the functions there are for internal use, while others are parts of the interface.  A modern language should address these problems.

So, enter the package.  Think of this as a C++ namespace, not a class name.  The exported names, i.e. the external API, are listed in the declaration of the package.  At a glance, the user can tell which functions are expected to be used outside the package.  Now, we can drop the dl-list- prefix on our functions, and that becomes the namespace.  Functions would now be invoked as (dl-list:make-dl-list).  If the user absolutely needs access to the internal functions, though, it is possible to call them, by using a double-colon separator between the namespace and the function name.  This is different from the C++ convention of private and public methods, and allows the programmer to make use of the “private” functions without having to modify the source code of the package.  In C++, the programmer would have to add a friend declaration to the class definition, which requires modifying the class.

We’ve also modified the automatically-generated functions in the definition of the dl-list structure.  Having the structure interface functions be prefixed dl-list is now a bit confusing given the namespace behaviour, so we use the :conc-name parameter to modify the way those functions are defined.

We’re almost ready to start in on the more interesting features.  Those will come in part 4.

;; We started with a fairly basic version.  It worked, but was clunky.
;; Now, we start making changes.

(defpackage :DL-LIST
  (:use :COMMON-LISP)
  (:export :EMPTY-P :DL-LENGTH :ITER-FRONT :ITER-BACK :ITER-NEXT :ITER-PREV
           :PUSH-FRONT :PUSH-BACK :POP-FRONT :POP-BACK :ITER-CONTENTS
           :INSERT-AFTER-ITER :MAKE-DL-LIST))

(in-package :DL-LIST)

(declaim (optimize (debug 3) (safety 3)))

;; Define the node.  They're opaque types to the user, but they double
;; as iterators (also opaque).
(defstruct (dl-node)
  (value        nil)
  (next-node    nil)
  (prev-node    nil))

;; Define the doubly-linked list.
(defstruct (dl-list (:conc-name dlst-))
  (first-node   nil)
  (last-node    nil))

(defun empty-p (dl-list)
  "Returns non-nil if the list is empty."
  (not (dlst-first-node dl-list)))

(defun iter-front (dl-list)
  "An iterator to the first element in the list."
  (dlst-first-node dl-list))

(defun iter-back (dl-list)
  "An iterator to the last element in the list."
  (dlst-last-node dl-list))

(defun iter-next (dl-list iter)
  "The next iterator, or nil if we're at the end of the list."
  (declare (ignore dl-list))
  (dl-node-next-node iter))

(defun iter-prev (dl-list iter)
  "The previous iterator, or nil if we're at the beginning of the list."
  (declare (ignore dl-list))
  (dl-node-prev-node iter))

(defun dl-length (dl-list)
  (let ((rv 0))
    (do ((iter (iter-front dl-list) (iter-next dl-list iter)))
        ((not iter) rv)
      (incf rv))))

(defun dl-list-insert-after-worker (dl-list iter val)
  "Insert a value in the dl-list after the iterator.  As a special case, 
if 'iter' is nil, inserts at the front of the list."

  (let* ((next-node (if iter (dl-node-next-node iter) (dlst-first-node dl-list)))
         (prev-node iter)
         (new-node (make-dl-node :value val
                                 :next-node next-node
                                 :prev-node prev-node)))
    (cond
      (next-node
       (setf (dl-node-prev-node next-node) new-node))
      (t
       (setf (dlst-last-node dl-list) new-node)))
    (cond
      (prev-node
       (setf (dl-node-next-node prev-node) new-node))
      (t
       (setf (dlst-first-node dl-list) new-node)))

    new-node))

(defun dl-list-delete-at-worker (dl-list iter)
  "Deletes the value under the iterator."
  (assert iter)
  (let ((prev-node (dl-node-prev-node iter))
        (next-node (dl-node-next-node iter)))
    (cond
      (prev-node
       (setf (dl-node-next-node prev-node) next-node))
      (t
       (setf (dlst-first-node dl-list) next-node)))

    (cond
      (next-node
       (setf (dl-node-prev-node next-node) prev-node))
      (t
       (setf (dlst-last-node dl-list) prev-node))))

  (dl-node-value iter))

(defun push-front (dl-list val)
  "Push a value onto the front of the list."
  (dl-list-insert-after-worker dl-list nil val))

(defun push-back (dl-list val)
  "Push a value onto the back of the list."
  (dl-list-insert-after-worker dl-list (dlst-last-node dl-list) val))

(defun pop-front (dl-list)
  "Remove the first value from the list and return it.  Returns nil if the list is empty."
  (let ((first-iter (iter-front dl-list)))
    (when first-iter
      (dl-list-delete-at-worker dl-list first-iter))))

(defun pop-back (dl-list)
  "Remove the last value from the list and return it.  Returns nil if the list is empty."
  (let ((last-iter (iter-back dl-list)))
    (when last-iter
      (dl-list-delete-at-worker dl-list last-iter))))

(defun iter-contents (dl-list iter)
  "The value of the list element pointed to by the iterator."
  (declare (ignore dl-list))
  (dl-node-value iter))

(defun insert-after-iter (dl-list iter val)
  "Insert a value into the list after the position of the iterator."
  (assert iter)
  (dl-list-insert-after-worker dl-list iter val))

(defun insert-before-iter (dl-list iter val)
  "Insert a value into the list before the position of the iterator."
  (assert iter)
  (dl-list-insert-after-worker dl-list (iter-prev dl-list iter) val))

(defun verify-dl-list-contents (dl-list &rest contents)
  (assert (= (dl-length dl-list) (length contents)))
  (assert (or (and contents (not (empty-p dl-list)))
              (and (not contents) (empty-p dl-list))))
  (let ((iter (iter-front dl-list)))
    (dolist (entry contents)
      (assert (eq entry (iter-contents dl-list iter)))
      (setf iter (iter-next dl-list iter)))))

(defun unit-test ()
  (let ((test-list (make-dl-list)))

    (verify-dl-list-contents test-list)

    (push-front test-list 10)
    (verify-dl-list-contents test-list 10)

    (push-front test-list 5)
    (verify-dl-list-contents test-list 5 10)

    (push-back test-list 20)
    (verify-dl-list-contents test-list 5 10 20)

    (let ((iter (iter-front test-list)))
      (assert (= (iter-contents test-list iter) 5))
      (insert-after-iter test-list iter 7)

      (verify-dl-list-contents test-list 5 7 10 20)

      (setf iter (iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert (= (iter-contents test-list iter) 7))

      (insert-before-iter test-list iter 6)

      (verify-dl-list-contents test-list 5 6 7 10 20)

      (setf iter (iter-prev test-list iter))
      (assert (= (iter-contents test-list iter) 6))

      (setf iter (iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert iter)
      (assert (= (iter-contents test-list iter) 7))

      (setf iter (iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert iter)
      (assert (= (iter-contents test-list iter) 10))

      (setf iter (iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert iter)
      (assert (= (iter-contents test-list iter) 20))

      (setf iter (iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert (not iter)))

    (assert (= (iter-contents test-list (iter-front test-list)) 5))
    (assert (= (iter-contents test-list (iter-back test-list)) 20))

    (assert (= (pop-front test-list) 5))
    (assert (= (dl-length test-list) 4))
    (assert (= (iter-contents test-list (iter-front test-list)) 6))

    (assert (= (pop-back test-list) 20))
    (assert (= (dl-length test-list) 3))
    (assert (= (iter-contents test-list (iter-back test-list)) 10)))
  t)

(defmethod print-object ((node dl-node) stream)
  "Allow pretty-printing of the a node."
  (let ((prev-node (dl-node-prev-node node))
        (next-node (dl-node-next-node node)))
    (format stream "{ ~A <- ~A -> ~A }" 
            (and prev-node (dl-node-value prev-node))
            (dl-node-value node)
            (and next-node (dl-node-value next-node)))))

Having written a somewhat basic and brute-force version of the doubly-linked list code in the previous post, I’m going to start cleaning it up.  This first change is fairly small.  Collection of common code, and an improved unit test.

One helpful shortcut in lisp is the ability to build lists at function invocation time, with the &rest keyword.  That’s just a bit of syntactic convenience, it can easily be implemented with the (list) function, but it’s worth pointing out.  In C/C++, I’d have to use some repetitive boilerplate for this, either building up C arrays, or filling in C++ vectors.  Not really a big deal, though.  The real magic will come later.  Continued in part 3.

;; We started with a fairly basic version.  It worked, but was clunky.
;; Now, we start making changes.

(declaim (optimize (debug 3) (safety 3)))

;; Define the node.  They're opaque types to the user, but they double
;; as iterators (also opaque).
(defstruct (dl-node)
  (value        nil)
  (next-node    nil)
  (prev-node    nil))

;; Define the doubly-linked list.
(defstruct (dl-list)
  (first-node   nil)
  (last-node    nil))

(defun dl-list-empty-p (dl-list)
  "Returns non-nil if the list is empty."
  (not (dl-list-first-node dl-list)))

(defun dl-list-length (dl-list)
  (let ((rv 0))
    (do ((iter (dl-list-iter-front dl-list) (dl-list-iter-next dl-list iter)))
        ((not iter) rv)
      (incf rv))))

(defun dl-list-iter-front (dl-list)
  "An iterator to the first element in the list."
  (dl-list-first-node dl-list))

(defun dl-list-iter-back (dl-list)
  "An iterator to the last element in the list."
  (dl-list-last-node dl-list))

(defun dl-list-iter-next (dl-list iter)
  "The next iterator, or nil if we're at the end of the list."
  (declare (ignore dl-list))
  (dl-node-next-node iter))

(defun dl-list-iter-prev (dl-list iter)
  "The previous iterator, or nil if we're at the beginning of the list."
  (declare (ignore dl-list))
  (dl-node-prev-node iter))

(defun dl-list-insert-after-worker (dl-list iter val)
  "Insert a value in the dl-list after the iterator.  As a special case, 
if 'iter' is nil, inserts at the front of the list."

  (let* ((next-node (if iter (dl-node-next-node iter) (dl-list-first-node dl-list)))
         (prev-node iter)
         (new-node (make-dl-node :value val
                                 :next-node next-node
                                 :prev-node prev-node)))
    (cond
      (next-node
       (setf (dl-node-prev-node next-node) new-node))
      (t
       (setf (dl-list-last-node dl-list) new-node)))
    (cond
      (prev-node
       (setf (dl-node-next-node prev-node) new-node))
      (t
       (setf (dl-list-first-node dl-list) new-node)))

    new-node))

(defun dl-list-delete-at-worker (dl-list iter)
  "Deletes the value under the iterator."
  (assert iter)
  (let ((prev-node (dl-node-prev-node iter))
        (next-node (dl-node-next-node iter)))
    (cond
      (prev-node
       (setf (dl-node-next-node prev-node) next-node))
      (t
       (setf (dl-list-first-node dl-list) next-node)))

    (cond
      (next-node
       (setf (dl-node-prev-node next-node) prev-node))
      (t
       (setf (dl-list-last-node dl-list) prev-node))))

  (dl-node-value iter))

(defun dl-list-push-front (dl-list val)
  "Push a value onto the front of the list."
  (dl-list-insert-after-worker dl-list nil val))

(defun dl-list-push-back (dl-list val)
  "Push a value onto the back of the list."
  (dl-list-insert-after-worker dl-list (dl-list-last-node dl-list) val))

(defun dl-list-pop-front (dl-list)
  "Remove the first value from the list and return it.  Returns nil if the list is empty."
  (let ((first-iter (dl-list-iter-front dl-list)))
    (when first-iter
      (dl-list-delete-at-worker dl-list first-iter))))

(defun dl-list-pop-back (dl-list)
  "Remove the last value from the list and return it.  Returns nil if the list is empty."
  (let ((last-iter (dl-list-iter-back dl-list)))
    (when last-iter
      (dl-list-delete-at-worker dl-list last-iter))))

(defun dl-list-iter-contents (dl-list iter)
  "The value of the list element pointed to by the iterator."
  (declare (ignore dl-list))
  (dl-node-value iter))

(defun dl-list-insert-after-iter (dl-list iter val)
  "Insert a value into the list after the position of the iterator."
  (assert iter)
  (dl-list-insert-after-worker dl-list iter val))

(defun dl-list-insert-before-iter (dl-list iter val)
  "Insert a value into the list before the position of the iterator."
  (assert iter)
  (dl-list-insert-after-worker dl-list (dl-list-iter-prev dl-list iter) val))

(defun verify-dl-list-contents (dl-list &rest contents)
  (assert (= (dl-list-length dl-list) (length contents)))
  (assert (or (and contents (not (dl-list-empty-p dl-list)))
              (and (not contents) (dl-list-empty-p dl-list))))
  (let ((iter (dl-list-iter-front dl-list)))
    (dolist (entry contents)
      (assert (eq entry (dl-list-iter-contents dl-list iter)))
      (setf iter (dl-list-iter-next dl-list iter)))))

(defun unit-test ()
  (let ((test-list (make-dl-list)))

    (verify-dl-list-contents test-list)

    (dl-list-push-front test-list 10)
    (verify-dl-list-contents test-list 10)

    (dl-list-push-front test-list 5)
    (verify-dl-list-contents test-list 5 10)

    (dl-list-push-back test-list 20)
    (verify-dl-list-contents test-list 5 10 20)

    (let ((iter (dl-list-iter-front test-list)))
      (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list iter) 5))
      (dl-list-insert-after-iter test-list iter 7)

      (verify-dl-list-contents test-list 5 7 10 20)

      (setf iter (dl-list-iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list iter) 7))

      (dl-list-insert-before-iter test-list iter 6)

      (verify-dl-list-contents test-list 5 6 7 10 20)

      (setf iter (dl-list-iter-prev test-list iter))
      (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list iter) 6))

      (setf iter (dl-list-iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert iter)
      (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list iter) 7))

      (setf iter (dl-list-iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert iter)
      (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list iter) 10))

      (setf iter (dl-list-iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert iter)
      (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list iter) 20))

      (setf iter (dl-list-iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert (not iter)))

    (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list (dl-list-iter-front test-list)) 5))
    (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list (dl-list-iter-back test-list)) 20))

    (assert (= (dl-list-pop-front test-list) 5))
    (assert (= (dl-list-length test-list) 4))
    (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list (dl-list-iter-front test-list)) 6))

    (assert (= (dl-list-pop-back test-list) 20))
    (assert (= (dl-list-length test-list) 3))
    (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list (dl-list-iter-back test-list)) 10)))
  t)

(defmethod print-object ((node dl-node) stream)
  "Allow pretty-printing of the a node."
  (let ((prev-node (dl-node-prev-node node))
        (next-node (dl-node-next-node node)))
    (format stream "{ ~A <- ~A -> ~A }" 
            (and prev-node (dl-node-value prev-node))
            (dl-node-value node)
            (and next-node (dl-node-value next-node)))))

There are several features of Lisp that I find very useful, and miss when I’m working in, for example, C++. One in particular is the ability to create new flow-control syntaxes.

To draw from a real example from my work, let’s say I have an arbitrary closed polygon, defined as an ordered sequence of points, and I’m interested in performing operations on these points, either individually, pairwise, or in triplets. I also might want to go in forward or reverse directions.

I’ll represent my polygons as doubly-linked lists. Not circular, it will be up to the user of the data structure to wrap around, if necessary, upon reaching the end of the list.

I’m going to be developing and refining this code, starting simply, but moving on to doing things better. Here’s our first iteration of a doubly-linked list, with a few helper functions.

Work will continue in a later post.

;; Define the node.  They're opaque types to the user, but they double
;; as iterators (also opaque).
(defstruct (dl-node)
  (value        nil)
  (next-node    nil)
  (prev-node    nil))

;; Define the doubly-linked list.
(defstruct (dl-list)
  (first-node   nil)
  (last-node    nil))

(defun dl-list-empty-p (dl-list)
  "Returns non-nil if the list is empty."
  (not (dl-list-first-node dl-list)))

(defun dl-list-length (dl-list)
  (let ((rv 0))
    (do ((iter (dl-list-iter-front dl-list) (dl-list-iter-next dl-list iter)))
        ((not iter) rv)
      (incf rv))))

(defun dl-list-push-front (dl-list val)
  "Push a value onto the front of the list."
  (let* ((first-node (dl-list-first-node dl-list))
         (new-node (make-dl-node :value val
                                :next-node first-node
                                :prev-node nil)))
    (when first-node
      (setf (dl-node-prev-node first-node) new-node))

    (setf (dl-list-first-node dl-list) new-node)
    (unless (dl-list-last-node dl-list)
      (setf (dl-list-last-node dl-list) new-node))
    new-node))

(defun dl-list-push-back (dl-list val)
  "Push a value onto the back of the list."
  (let* ((last-node (dl-list-last-node dl-list))
         (new-node (make-dl-node :value val
                                :next-node nil
                                :prev-node last-node)))
    (when last-node
      (setf (dl-node-next-node last-node) new-node))

    (setf (dl-list-last-node dl-list) new-node)
    (unless (dl-list-first-node dl-list)
      (setf (dl-list-first-node dl-list) new-node))
    new-node))

(defun dl-list-pop-front (dl-list)
  "Remove the first value from the list and return it.  Returns nil if the list is empty."
  (when (dl-list-first-node dl-list)
    (let* ((first-node (dl-list-first-node dl-list))
           (second-node (dl-node-next-node first-node))
           (rv (dl-node-value first-node)))
      (cond
        (second-node
         (setf (dl-node-prev-node second-node) nil)
         (setf (dl-list-first-node dl-list) second-node))
        (t
         (setf (dl-list-first-node dl-list) nil
               (dl-list-last-node dl-list) nil)))
      rv)))

(defun dl-list-pop-back (dl-list)
  "Remove the last value from the list and return it.  Returns nil if the list is empty."
  (when (dl-list-last-node dl-list)
    (let* ((last-node (dl-list-last-node dl-list))
           (penultimate-node (dl-node-prev-node last-node))
           (rv (dl-node-value last-node)))
      (cond
        (penultimate-node
         (setf (dl-node-next-node penultimate-node) nil)
         (setf (dl-list-last-node dl-list) penultimate-node))
        (t
         (setf (dl-list-first-node dl-list) nil
               (dl-list-last-node dl-list) nil)))
      rv)))

(defun dl-list-iter-front (dl-list)
  "An iterator to the first element in the list."
  (dl-list-first-node dl-list))

(defun dl-list-iter-back (dl-list)
  "An iterator to the last element in the list."
  (dl-list-last-node dl-list))

(defun dl-list-iter-next (dl-list iter)
  "The next iterator, or nil if we're at the end of the list."
  (declare (ignore dl-list))
  (dl-node-next-node iter))

(defun dl-list-iter-prev (dl-list iter)
  "The previous iterator, or nil if we're at the beginning of the list."
  (declare (ignore dl-list))
  (dl-node-prev-node iter))

(defun dl-list-iter-contents (dl-list iter)
  "The value of the list element pointed to by the iterator."
  (declare (ignore dl-list))
  (dl-node-value iter))

(defun dl-list-insert-after-iter (dl-list iter val)
  "Insert a value into the list after the position of the iterator."
  (let* ((next-node (dl-node-next-node iter))
         (new-node (make-dl-node :value val 
                                 :next-node next-node
                                 :prev-node iter)))
    (cond
      (next-node
       (setf (dl-node-prev-node next-node) new-node))
      (t
       (setf (dl-list-last-node dl-list) new-node)))
    (setf (dl-node-next-node iter) new-node)
    new-node))

(defun dl-list-insert-before-iter (dl-list iter val)
  "Insert a value into the list before the position of the iterator."
  (let* ((prev-node (dl-node-prev-node iter))
         (new-node (make-dl-node :value val 
                                 :next-node iter
                                 :prev-node prev-node)))
    (cond
      (prev-node
       (setf (dl-node-next-node prev-node) new-node))
      (t
       (setf (dl-list-first-node dl-list) new-node)))
    (setf (dl-node-prev-node iter) new-node)
    new-node))

(defun unit-test ()
  (let ((test-list (make-dl-list)))
    (assert (dl-list-empty-p test-list))
    (dl-list-push-front test-list 10)
    (assert (not (dl-list-empty-p test-list)))
    (assert (= (dl-list-length test-list) 1))
    (dl-list-push-front test-list 5)
    (assert (not (dl-list-empty-p test-list)))
    (assert (= (dl-list-length test-list) 2))
    (dl-list-push-back test-list 20)
    (assert (not (dl-list-empty-p test-list)))
    (assert (= (dl-list-length test-list) 3))
    (let ((iter (dl-list-iter-front test-list)))
      (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list iter) 5))
      (dl-list-insert-after-iter test-list iter 7)
      (assert (not (dl-list-empty-p test-list)))
      (assert (= (dl-list-length test-list) 4))

      (setf iter (dl-list-iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list iter) 7))

      (dl-list-insert-before-iter test-list iter 6)
      (setf iter (dl-list-iter-prev test-list iter))
      (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list iter) 6))

      (setf iter (dl-list-iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert iter)
      (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list iter) 7))

      (setf iter (dl-list-iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert iter)
      (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list iter) 10))

      (setf iter (dl-list-iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert iter)
      (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list iter) 20))

      (setf iter (dl-list-iter-next test-list iter))
      (assert (not iter)))

    (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list (dl-list-iter-front test-list)) 5))
    (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list (dl-list-iter-back test-list)) 20))

    (assert (= (dl-list-pop-front test-list) 5))
    (assert (= (dl-list-length test-list) 4))
    (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list (dl-list-iter-front test-list)) 6))

    (assert (= (dl-list-pop-back test-list) 20))
    (assert (= (dl-list-length test-list) 3))
    (assert (= (dl-list-iter-contents test-list (dl-list-iter-back test-list)) 10)))
  t)

(defmethod print-object ((node dl-node) stream)
  "Allow pretty-printing of the a node."
  (let ((prev-node (dl-node-prev-node node))
        (next-node (dl-node-next-node node)))
    (format stream "{ ~A <- ~A -> ~A }" 
            (and prev-node (dl-node-value prev-node))
            (dl-node-value node)
            (and next-node (dl-node-value next-node)))))

The circumstances of my job are a bit unusual.  I work on heavy math computational engines, and am the sole developer on these pieces of code.  Often there isn’t, at first, a clear path to solving the problem, and I will find myself trying out different approaches to see if they achieve the desired results.  It’s not unusual to have to discard code developed over two weeks because it turns out not to work for the problem.

This sort of coding progression can lead to very messy code.  You start down one path, set up your calling contexts and your APIs, then decide that this is the wrong approach and you have to come at the problem completely differently.  Now your APIs are wrong, or at least inefficient for the task.  There might be a pile of dead code intended to handle conditions that no longer arise.  You distort the code you’ve retained until it can be applied to the new approach, but your data structures are wrong, you’re re-doing expensive computations because it’s easier to call the function than to figure out how to cache it effectively, and so on.

The result of this tends to be that, by the time the code is done and working, it really desperately needs a rewrite for maintainability, ease of understanding, and support.

And this is where my employers have given me a very useful and valuable freedom.  Instead of shipping the messy prototype that works, they give me the time to rewrite it.  They use the prototype for demos and customer feedback, but meanwhile, I’m applying the lessons learned from the first time through to rewriting the code.  While this means that the project likely takes longer, it comes out more efficient, more maintainable, and more reliable.

However, programmers are famously lazy.  A rewrite can, all too easily, become a cut-and-paste edit session where the code is only modified in a few places.  To avoid this impulse, I write my prototypes in a language that is syntactically alien to the final version.

The code I write for work is in C++.  I prototype in Common Lisp.  Those languages are so different that I’m not going to be copying code from the prototype to the final C++ version.  I can apply the lessons I learned in redesigning my code paths.  I rewrite the code from the bottom-up.  I now understand what every class will be asked to do, so I can generate the write internal APIs, and then tie them together at the end.

Lisp has some very helpful features for this prototyping.  The ability to pass lambda functions to other functions makes it easy to try out several different options very quickly from the command line, without having to sit through a recompilation, and without needing to put in all the boilerplate that comes with building functions in C++.  This isn’t really a weakness of C++, the two languages are very different, and each has its own strengths.

I’m going to be talking a bit about Lisp in the next little while, bringing up some of the interesting parts of the language, the things that I miss when I’m not programming in Lisp.  I’m not likely to say anything that hasn’t already been said elsewhere, and probably more clearly, but maybe the perspective will be interesting.

I’ve been programming in Lisp for some years now.  A variant of it, muLisp, was one of the first languages that I programmed in, but I was inspired to come back to Lisp by this essay by Paul Graham.